Determinants of India’s Foreign Policy: History – Political Science Teaching Aid

Introduction: India’s foreign policy is profoundly shaped by its rich and tumultuous history, which serves as both a repository of lessons and a blueprint for strategic autonomy. From the ancient era of expansive empires like the Mauryas and Guptas that fostered cultural diplomacy and trade across Asia, to the medieval interactions with Central Asian powers and European traders, India has long navigated a world of interconnected influences. The most defining chapter, however, unfolded during the British colonial period (1757–1947), where subjugation bred a fierce nationalism and a commitment to sovereignty, culminating in the independence movement led by figures like Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. This historical crucible instilled principles of non-alignment during the Cold War, as articulated in the 1955 Bandung Conference, emphasizing peaceful coexistence and resistance to great power dominance. Today, echoes of partition’s traumas inform India’s cautious neighborhood policies, while the legacy of ancient pluralism underpins its advocacy for a multipolar world order, positioning India as a bridge between the Global South and major powers in an era of geopolitical flux.

The Impact of History on India’s Foreign Policy can be understood better under the following heads.

Ideology
International Status
Role of Indian National Congress
Criticisms of Colonialism
Unattached to British Policies
Support for Backward Nations

1.Ideology:

Ancient Indian ideologies, rooted in texts like the Arthashastra, Upanishads, and epics such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, have profoundly shaped India’s foreign policy by emphasizing ethical diplomacy, strategic realism, and a worldview of interconnectedness. These principles promote non-violence (ahimsa), the unity of the world as one family (Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam), and pragmatic statecraft, influencing modern doctrines like non-alignment and multi-alignment in global affairs. valdaiclub+1

Core Ancient Ideologies

The concept of ahimsa, originating from ancient scriptures like the Upanishads and Jain-Buddhist traditions, advocates non-violence as a moral imperative, which historically guided emperors like Ashoka to abandon conquest for peaceful outreach across Asia. This ideology extends to dharma (righteous duty) in the Mahabharata and Bhagavad Gita, where Lord Krishna advises Arjuna on ethical warfare as a last resort, prioritizing diplomacy and justice in interstate relations. Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, drawn from the Maha Upanishad, posits the world as a single family, fostering tolerance and inclusivity that underpins India’s cultural pluralism and aversion to hegemonic dominance. Meanwhile, Kautilya’s Arthashastra introduces realpolitik through the Mandala theory, envisioning a geopolitical circle of allies, enemies, and neutrals, which stresses forming strategic alliances to enhance national security and prosperity.impriindia+5

Historical Transmission

During the Mauryan Empire, Chanakya’s (Kautilya’s) Saptanga theory—outlining seven state elements including alliances and economy—blended with Ashoka’s post-Kalinga adoption of ahimsa, leading to Buddhist missions that established soft power ties with Southeast Asia and beyond. The Chola dynasty’s maritime expeditions further exemplified this by promoting trade and cultural exchange, echoing ancient texts’ emphasis on economic interdependence over territorial aggression. These historical practices created a continuum, where medieval interactions with Central Asia reinforced the balance between ethical norms and pragmatic diplomacy, setting precedents for resisting external domination.jstor+3

Impact on Contemporary Foreign Policy

India’s non-alignment policy during the Cold War, formalized at the 1955 Bandung Conference, directly draws from ahimsa and Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, enabling strategic autonomy amid superpower rivalries and promoting peaceful coexistence via the Panchsheel principles. The Mandala theory informs neighborhood policies, such as viewing immediate neighbors as potential adversaries while seeking distant allies, evident in India’s “Act East” initiative that revives ancient maritime links with ASEAN nations. In multilateral forums, ancient pluralism supports India’s advocacy for the Global South, as seen in vaccine diplomacy during COVID-19 and climate negotiations, balancing realism with normative commitments to equity and non-interference. Overall, these ideologies allow India to navigate multipolarity by synthesizing ethical idealism with Kautilyan strategy, ensuring sovereignty while fostering global harmony.mea+8

2.International Status

Indian history has profoundly influenced its foreign policy by embedding principles of strategic autonomy, non-alignment, and moral leadership, driving the pursuit of international status as a sovereign great power free from colonial subjugation. This historical imprint, from ancient pluralism to colonial resistance, has shaped India’s diplomatic strategies to reclaim global prominence through economic self-reliance, multilateral engagement, and regional dominance.e-ir

Ancient and Pre-Colonial Foundations

India’s ancient history, marked by empires like the Mauryas and Guptas, fostered a tradition of cultural diplomacy and expansive trade networks across Asia, instilling an identity of civilizational leadership that informs modern aspirations for multipolar global influence. Thinkers like Kautilya emphasized realism and power balance in Arthashastra, providing a pragmatic framework that contrasts with Gandhian non-violence but underscores the dual heritage guiding India’s security-oriented diplomacy. This pre-colonial era of dominance, where India was a hub of economic and intellectual exchange, motivates contemporary foreign policy to restore great power status through initiatives like the Act East Policy, echoing historical connectivity with Southeast Asia.ebooks.inflibnet+1

Source: coinindia.com Gold Coins of Samudragupta

Colonial Subjugation and Nationalist Awakening

The British colonial period (1757–1947) transformed India into a subjugated entity, breeding a deep-seated commitment to sovereignty and anti-imperialism that became the cornerstone of post-independence foreign policy. Leaders of the Indian National Congress, including Nehru, used international platforms to highlight colonial exploitation, laying the groundwork for India’s role in decolonization movements and its founding membership in the United Nations in 1945. The trauma of partition in 1947 and resulting conflicts, such as the Kashmir dispute, reinforced a foreign policy focused on territorial integrity and non-interference, propelling India to seek international status as a voice for the Global South to prevent future dominations.wikipedia+2

Post-Independence Non-Alignment and Realism

Jawaharlal Nehru’s Nehruvian era (1947–1964) drew from historical lessons of colonial vulnerability to craft non-alignment, allowing India to navigate Cold War bipolarity while pursuing economic development and moral authority on the global stage. The 1962 Sino-Indian War exposed vulnerabilities in idealistic diplomacy, shifting policy toward realism with defense pacts like the 1971 Indo-Soviet Treaty, which bolstered India’s regional dominance and international credibility during the Bangladesh Liberation War. This evolution reflects historical recovery from subjugation, enabling India to elevate its status through leadership in the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) founded in 1961, positioning it as a bridge between developed and developing worlds.vajiramandravi+2

Modern Pursuit of Global Status

Contemporary Indian foreign policy, influenced by historical phases of optimism and recovery, emphasizes multi-alignment and economic power to achieve permanent UN Security Council membership and G20 leadership. The legacy of ancient pluralism and colonial resistance drives initiatives like the Quad and BRICS, aiming to counterbalance powers like China while asserting India’s role in a multipolar order. By 2025, this historical continuum has elevated India’s international status through soft power diplomacy and strategic partnerships, ensuring purna swaraj (complete independence) amid geopolitical flux.drishtiias+2

3.Role of Indian National Congress

The Indian National Congress (INC), as the primary vehicle of India’s independence movement, profoundly influenced the contours of post-independence foreign policy by articulating anti-colonial, non-interventionist, and internationalist principles through resolutions and global outreach efforts that emphasized sovereignty, solidarity with oppressed nations, and opposition to imperialism. This pre-1947 engagement with international affairs, led by figures like Jawaharlal Nehru, laid the ideological groundwork for India’s non-alignment doctrine, fostering a commitment to peaceful coexistence and support for decolonization movements worldwide.vajiramandravi+3

Ideological Foundations

The INC’s foreign policy vision evolved from a critique of British imperial control to a broader advocacy for global anti-colonialism, which directly informed India’s post-independence stance against great power dominance and racial discrimination. Early resolutions highlighted sympathy for the Soviet Union’s anti-imperialist aspirations and opposition to fascism, reflecting an acute awareness of emerging global threats like the rise of Nazi Germany and Italian aggression. This ideological shift, particularly post-World War I, emphasized economic critiques of imperialism and the need for Asian solidarity, positioning India as a potential leader in a multipolar world free from colonial interference.mea+3

Landmark Events and Resolutions

Several pivotal INC sessions and movements marked its proactive role in shaping foreign policy orientations, mobilizing international support for Indian independence while condemning global injustices.lotusarise+1

1921 All-India Congress Committee Meeting (New Delhi): This session produced the INC’s first formal resolution on foreign policy, declaring that the British-controlled Government of India did not represent Indian opinion and calling for greater autonomy in external relations, setting a precedent for rejecting imperial diplomacy.lotusarise
1919-1924 Khilafat Movement: Allying with Indian Muslims, the INC supported the Ottoman Caliphate against British dismantling post-World War I, which highlighted solidarity with Islamic anti-colonial struggles and strained relations with Britain, influencing India’s later emphasis on interfaith harmony in international affairs.mea
1927 Madras Session: The INC passed a landmark resolution stressing the need for India to conduct its external relations independently, without British interference, effectively laying the foundations for sovereign foreign policy and inspiring future diplomatic autonomy.lotusarise
1935 Response to Italian Invasion of Abyssinia (Ethiopia): The INC condemned fascist Italy’s aggression at the Faizpur session, urging economic boycotts and linking it to anti-imperialist solidarity, which reinforced India’s post-independence advocacy for African decolonization.lotusarise
1936-1939 Stance on Spanish Civil War: Through resolutions, the INC supported the Republican government against Franco’s fascist forces, opposing non-intervention policies favored by Britain and France, and this anti-fascist position echoed in India’s wartime neutrality and post-war non-alignment.lotusarise
1942 Quit India Movement: Amid World War II, the INC demanded immediate independence and critiqued Britain’s use of Indian troops in imperial wars, while rejecting alliances with Axis powers; this movement garnered global sympathy and underscored India’s commitment to self-determination over superpower blocs.mea
1947 Asian Relations Conference (New Delhi): Organized by Nehru under INC auspices just before independence, this gathering of Asian leaders promoted anti-colonial unity and regional cooperation, serving as a precursor to the 1955 Bandung Conference and the Non-Aligned Movement.mea

These events not only raised international awareness of India’s plight but also embedded principles of multilateralism and South-South cooperation into the fabric of India’s emerging foreign policy framework.un+1

4.Criticisms of Colonialism

India’s pre-independence and formative foreign policy periods were marked by a strong anti-colonial ethos, driven by its own struggle against British rule and extending solidarity to other colonized nations through diplomatic advocacy, moral support, and international forums. This stance evolved from internal nationalist movements into global leadership in decolonization efforts, emphasizing sovereignty and non-interference.banotes+1

Pre-Independence Period

Mahatma Gandhi’s South African Campaign (1893–1914): Gandhi developed the philosophy of satyagraha while fighting racial discrimination and colonial policies in South Africa, inspiring anti-colonial leaders worldwide and establishing India’s early moral authority against imperialism.shaalaa
Indian National Congress Resolutions (1920s–1940s): The INC, under leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, passed resolutions condemning global colonialism, including support for Irish independence and Egyptian nationalism, framing anti-imperialism as integral to India’s freedom struggle.jstor
Nehru’s Participation in International Anti-Colonial Conferences (1920s–1930s): Nehru attended events like the 1927 Brussels Congress Against Colonial Oppression, where he networked with global revolutionaries and advocated for solidarity among colonized peoples, influencing India’s future foreign policy.banotes
India’s UN Complaint Against South Africa (1946): Even under British rule, India raised the issue of discriminatory laws against Indians in South Africa at the newly formed United Nations, marking an early international stand against racial colonialism and apartheid.wikipedia+1
Asian Relations Conference (March 1947): Organized by Nehru in New Delhi just months before independence, this gathering of Asian leaders fostered anti-colonial unity, discussing solidarity with colonized regions and laying groundwork for post-independence diplomacy.banotes

Formative Years (1947–1960s)

Support for Indonesian Independence (1947–1949): India provided diplomatic backing and hosted peace talks between Indonesia and the Dutch, leading to UN recognition of Indonesian sovereignty in 1949, showcasing its commitment to Asian decolonization.tripurauniv+1
Bandung Conference (April 1955): Nehru co-led this Afro-Asian summit in Indonesia, where 29 nations condemned colonialism and nuclear threats, with India pledging support for liberation movements in Africa and Asia, amplifying Global South voices.byjus+1
Formation of the Non-Aligned Movement (1961): India, under Nehru, co-founded NAM at the Belgrade Conference, creating a platform for newly independent nations to resist superpower dominance and colonial remnants, prioritizing decolonization in international agendas.lotusarise+1
Advocacy for African Decolonization (1950s–1960s): India supported independence struggles in Algeria, Angola, and other Portuguese colonies through UN resolutions and material aid, while Krishna Menon, as UN representative, pushed for the 1960 Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries.shaalaa+1
Opposition to Apartheid in South Africa (Ongoing from 1946): Building on pre-independence efforts, India led UN campaigns against South Africa’s racial policies, severing trade ties in 1961 and hosting anti-apartheid exiles, reinforcing its anti-colonial leadership.shaalaa+1

5.Unattached to British Policy

During the British Raj (1858–1947), India as a colony had no independent foreign policy, which was entirely dictated by British imperial interests, but Indian nationalists, particularly through the Indian National Congress (INC), actively opposed and sought to detach from these policies by condemning imperialism and advocating for peaceful, anti-colonial international relations. This detachment manifested in vocal resolutions, boycotts of British military actions, and the promotion of principles like non-alignment and solidarity with global independence movements, laying the foundation for post-independence India’s foreign policy.gktoday

Early Opposition (1885–1914)

The INC, founded in 1885, immediately critiqued British foreign policies that used India as a military base for expansionist ventures. In its first session, it disapproved of the annexation of Upper Burma, viewing it as an imperial overreach that disregarded Indian interests. By 1892, the INC objected to British military activities near India’s natural borders, such as in Tibet, Afghanistan, and Persia, arguing that these served British global ambitions rather than regional stability. In 1904, it further opposed British intervention in Tibet, emphasizing opposition to militarism and foreign entanglements.gktoday

Interwar Period Activism (1919–1939)

Following World War I, the INC intensified its international engagement, sending messages of sympathy to Ireland’s independence struggle in 1920 and adopting its first comprehensive foreign policy resolution in 1921 at the Delhi session. This resolution criticized the British Government of India for prioritizing imperial interests over India’s, calling for friendly relations with neighbors based on equality and peace. In 1927, at the Madras session, the INC passed a resolution against deploying Indian troops in China, Mesopotamia, and Persia, highlighting exploitation of Indian resources for British wars. The 1928 Calcutta session established a Foreign Department under Jawaharlal Nehru to foster anti-imperialist networks and organize global dependent peoples’ movements. By 1930, the INC condemned Nazi and Fascist aggressions, warning against imperialist wars and declaring India would not participate without self-rule.gktoday

World War II and Final Assertions (1939–1947)

At the 1939 Tripuri session, the INC asserted India’s right to formulate its own foreign policy, rejecting British declarations of war on India’s behalf without consultation. It demanded adherence to the Atlantic Charter’s principles of self-determination during World War II, positioning India as a full sovereign state. From 1945–1947, INC resolutions advocated global decolonization, elimination of imperialism, and an end to foreign domination in Asia and Africa, while expressing concerns over atomic weapons and big-power rivalries in the United Nations. These stances, often drafted by Nehru, promoted democracy and denounced colonialism, directly challenging British use of India in international conflicts like the Anglo-Afghan Wars and the Great Game against Russia.civilspedia+1

6.Support for Backward Nations

India’s support for “backward nations”—referring to colonized or developing countries undergoing anti-colonial struggles or economic challenges—was constrained during the British Raj due to its own colonial status, but manifested through moral solidarity, individual initiatives, and nationalist advocacy that inspired global movements. In the formative years following independence in 1947, under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, this evolved into structured diplomatic, financial, and technical assistance, positioning India as a leader in decolonization and South-South cooperation.

Support During the British Raj (1858–1947)

India’s colonial subjugation limited official state-level aid, yet Indian nationalists and civil society actively extended solidarity to other oppressed nations, viewing global anti-imperialism as interconnected with their own freedom struggle. The Indian press, including publications like The Amrita Bazar Patrika and The Modern Review, expressed strong support for Korean resistance against Japanese colonization starting around 1907, condemning imperialism as a shared evil and fostering cross-colonial awareness. In 1938, amid the Sino-Japanese War, an Indian Medical Mission dispatched doctors, including Dwarkanath Kotnis, to provide humanitarian aid in China, demonstrating practical solidarity despite British oversight. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress promoted non-violent philosophy that influenced international anti-colonial efforts, such as in Africa and Ireland, while Nehru’s writings and speeches advocated for global decolonization even before 1947. This era’s contributions were largely inspirational and diplomatic, laying the groundwork for post-independence policies by building networks among colonized peoples.

Support in the Formative Years of Independence (1947–1960s)

Post-independence, India rapidly transitioned to proactive support for decolonizing nations, driven by Nehru’s vision of non-alignment, peaceful coexistence, and Third World solidarity, often prioritizing moral imperatives over its own economic constraints. In 1949, India extended concessional loans to Burma (now Myanmar) for food commodities and grants to Nepal and Bhutan for infrastructure, marking the start of bilateral aid focused on neighboring “backward” states. Through the 1950 Colombo Plan for Cooperative Economic Development in South and Southeast Asia, India provided $10 million in grants, technical training slots to scholars from Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Indonesia, and Thailand, and established aid missions, such as in Kathmandu by 1954 for over 75 projects. Nehru’s government championed decolonization at the United Nations, becoming the first nation in 1946 to raise apartheid in South Africa, severing diplomatic ties in 1954, imposing trade sanctions, and offering material support to liberation movements like the African National Congress. India also granted scholarships to students from Asian and African countries starting in 1949, emphasizing capacity-building in education and technical skills to address underdevelopment. As a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961, India amplified voices against colonialism, mediating conflicts like in Korea and Congo, and fostering egalitarian partnerships that earned it soft power among newly independent states. This assistance, though modest in scale, was framed as mutual benefit rather than donor-recipient dynamics, reflecting India’s lived experience of colonial exploitation.

Further reading and Reference: