Introduction: National security refers to the protection of a nation’s sovereignty, territorial integrity, institutions, and people from internal and external threats. It encompasses a broad range of measures taken by the state to safeguard political stability, economic interests, social harmony, and strategic assets. Traditionally associated with military defense against foreign aggression, national security today also includes non-traditional dimensions such as terrorism, cyber threats, economic insecurity, energy security, environmental challenges, and public health emergencies. Effective national security relies on coordinated efforts among the armed forces, intelligence agencies, law-enforcement institutions, diplomatic mechanisms, and economic and technological capabilities to ensure the long-term survival, stability, and well-being of the nation.
Definitions:
Walter Lippmann (1943) defined national security as a condition in which “a nation is secure to the extent that it is not in danger of having to sacrifice its core values, if it wishes to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by victory in such a war.” This definition links national security closely with the protection of national values and military capability.
Arnold Wolfers (1952) described national security as “the absence of threats to acquired values.” He emphasized that security is both an objective condition (actual absence of threats) and a subjective perception (absence of fear), highlighting that national security is not purely military but also psychological.
Barry Buzan (1983) expanded the concept by defining national security as “the pursuit of freedom from threat and the ability of states and societies to maintain their independent identity and functional integrity against forces of change.” His definition broadens national security to include political, economic, societal, and environmental dimensions.
Why National Security is Important: National security plays a central role in international relations as it shapes how states perceive threats, define interests, and conduct foreign policy. The primary objective of states in the international system is survival, and concerns over national security influence decisions related to diplomacy, alliances, military preparedness, and strategic partnerships. States often cooperate or compete based on shared or conflicting security interests, leading to the formation of alliances, balance-of-power politics, and collective security arrangements. National security considerations also affect economic relations, arms control negotiations, and responses to transnational threats such as terrorism, cyber warfare, and climate change. In an increasingly interconnected yet anarchic international system, the pursuit of national security not only determines a state’s behavior but also contributes to regional stability or instability, making it a key determinant of global peace and conflict.
Important Features of National Security:
- Protection of Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity
The foremost feature of national security is safeguarding a state’s sovereignty and clearly defined borders from external aggression or illegal occupation. Sovereignty allows a state to exercise supreme authority within its territory without external interference. Any threat to territorial integrity—such as invasion, border incursions, or secessionist movements—directly challenges national security.
Example: India’s security concerns along the Line of Control (LoC) and Line of Actual Control (LAC) reflect efforts to protect territorial integrity against cross-border infiltration and territorial claims. - Military Security and Defence Capability
Military security refers to the ability of a nation’s armed forces to deter, defend against, and respond to external military threats. It includes preparedness, modernization, strategic doctrines, and deterrence capabilities such as nuclear weapons. A credible military acts as both a defensive shield and a deterrent against hostile actions.
Example: India’s nuclear deterrence policy and acquisition of advanced systems like the S-400 missile defense system enhance its military security against potential threats. - Internal Security and Law & Order
National security is equally threatened by internal challenges such as terrorism, insurgency, extremism, organized crime, and communal violence. Effective internal security ensures social stability, public safety, and the authority of the state. This feature involves intelligence agencies, police forces, and counter-terrorism mechanisms.
Example: India’s counter-insurgency operations in Jammu & Kashmir and measures against left-wing extremism address internal security threats. - Political and Institutional Security
Political security focuses on protecting the constitutional framework, democratic institutions, and governance systems from subversion, coups, foreign interference, or misinformation campaigns. Stable political institutions are essential for effective decision-making and national unity.
Example: Safeguarding electoral processes from cyber interference and misinformation is a growing political security concern for democracies worldwide. - Economic Security
Economic security ensures that a nation has stable growth, employment, financial resilience, and control over critical resources and supply chains. Economic weakness can make a state vulnerable to coercion, sanctions, or internal unrest. Thus, economic strength underpins military and diplomatic power.
Example: India’s focus on energy security, Make in India, and diversification of trade partners aims to reduce dependence on external actors and strengthen economic resilience. - Non-Traditional Security Dimensions
Modern national security extends beyond military threats to include non-traditional challenges such as cyber threats, climate change, pandemics, energy shortages, and food insecurity. These threats may not involve armed conflict but can severely disrupt national stability and governance.
Example: The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted health security as a national security issue, while cyberattacks on critical infrastructure demonstrate the importance of cyber security. - Diplomatic and Strategic Security
Diplomacy is a vital feature of national security, as it helps manage conflicts, build alliances, and promote national interests peacefully. Strategic partnerships, regional cooperation, and participation in international institutions enhance a nation’s security environment.
Example: India’s participation in groupings like the Quad strengthens strategic security through cooperation in defense, maritime security, and technology.
In essence, the features of national security are multidimensional and interlinked. A state can achieve effective national security only when military strength is supported by political stability, economic resilience, internal cohesion, and adaptive responses to emerging global challenges.
TRADITIONAL PERSPECTIVE OF NATIONAL SECURITY
- State-Centric Approach
The traditional perspective views the state as the primary and central actor in international relations. National security is concerned mainly with the survival, sovereignty, and territorial integrity of the state, rather than individuals or societies. Threats are understood in terms of dangers to the state from other states.
Example: During the Cold War, both the United States and the Soviet Union framed security almost entirely in terms of protecting the state from each other, prioritizing national survival over human or societal concerns. - Military-Centric Understanding of Security
Traditional security thinking places military power at the core of national security. Security is achieved through armed forces, weapons, and defense preparedness. Non-military threats such as poverty or environmental issues are largely excluded from this framework.
Example: The massive accumulation of nuclear weapons by the US and USSR was based on the belief that military strength ensured national security through deterrence. - External Threat Orientation
In the traditional view, threats to national security are primarily external, originating from hostile states. Internal issues are treated as law-and-order problems rather than national security concerns unless they are linked to foreign actors.
Example: Cross-border invasions such as Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990 are classic examples of external military threats emphasized in traditional security thinking. - Emphasis on Sovereignty and Territorial Integrity
Protecting sovereignty and territorial borders is a fundamental feature of traditional national security. Any violation of borders is seen as a direct threat to the existence of the state and justifies the use of force.
Example: India’s wars with Pakistan in 1947 and 1965 were largely framed in traditional security terms of defending territorial sovereignty. - Use of Force and War as Legitimate Instruments
Traditional perspectives consider war and the use of force as legitimate and sometimes necessary tools for achieving national security objectives. Military victory is often seen as the ultimate guarantee of security.
Example: World War II demonstrated how states relied on total war and military victory to ensure survival and post-war security. - Balance of Power Logic
Security is maintained by preventing any one state from becoming too powerful. States form alliances and increase military strength to maintain a balance that discourages aggression.
Example: NATO and the Warsaw Pact were created to balance each other’s power during the Cold War. - National Interest as the Guiding Principle
Traditional security emphasizes national interest, especially survival and power, as the guiding principle of state behavior. Moral or humanitarian considerations are secondary to strategic interests.
Example: Alliances during World War II were based on strategic necessity rather than ideological similarity. - Zero-Sum Perception of Security
Security is viewed as a zero-sum game, where one state’s gain in security is seen as another state’s loss. This often leads to arms races and mutual suspicion.
Example: The nuclear arms race between the US and USSR reflected the belief that increased security for one side reduced the security of the other. - Limited Role of International Institutions
Traditional perspectives are skeptical of international organizations, believing they have limited influence over state behavior when vital security interests are at stake.
Example: The failure of the League of Nations to prevent World War II reinforced realist skepticism toward collective security mechanisms.
Conclusion: The traditional perspective of national security in international relations is rooted in realism, emphasizing state survival, military power, and external threats in an anarchic international system. While this approach remains relevant for understanding wars and strategic rivalries, it is increasingly complemented by non-traditional and human security perspectives in the contemporary world.
MODERN PERSPECTIVE OF NATIONAL SECURITY
- Broadening of the Security Concept (Beyond Military Security)
The modern perspective rejects the traditional view that equated national security solely with military defense. Security is now understood as multidimensional, encompassing political, economic, social, environmental, and technological aspects. Military power remains important, but it is no longer sufficient on its own to ensure national survival.
Example: Economic crises or pandemics, such as COVID-19, posed serious national security threats despite not involving military conflict. - Human Security as a Core Element
Modern security thinking emphasizes the security of individuals rather than only the state. Introduced by the UNDP (1994), human security includes freedom from fear and freedom from want—covering health, food, economic, and personal security. A state cannot be secure if its population lives in insecurity.
Example: Food insecurity and unemployment can lead to internal unrest, as seen during the Arab Spring, affecting national and regional stability. - Importance of Internal Security and Societal Stability
Modern national security recognizes that internal threats such as terrorism, extremism, ethnic conflict, and social polarization can be as dangerous as external aggression. Internal cohesion and social harmony are now central to national strength.
Example: Terrorist attacks by non-state actors like ISIS have destabilized several states without conventional wars. - Role of Non-State Actors
Unlike the traditional state-centric approach, modern security perspectives acknowledge the significant role of non-state actors such as terrorist groups, multinational corporations, NGOs, cyber hackers, and international organizations. These actors can influence security outcomes positively or negatively.
Example: Al-Qaeda and ISIS challenged state authority across borders, while NGOs play key roles in humanitarian and peace-building efforts. - Cyber Security and Information Warfare
The digital age has introduced cyber threats as a critical dimension of national security. Cyberattacks on financial systems, power grids, military networks, and elections can cripple a state without a single shot being fired. Information warfare and misinformation campaigns further threaten political stability.
Example: Allegations of cyber interference in elections and attacks on critical infrastructure highlight cyber space as a new battlefield. - Economic Interdependence and Security
Modern national security is closely linked to economic strength and interdependence. Disruptions in trade, supply chains, energy flows, or financial systems can weaken national power and autonomy. Economic coercion has become a strategic tool in international relations.
Example: Global supply-chain disruptions during the pandemic affected national economies and strategic industries worldwide. - Environmental and Climate Security
Environmental degradation and climate change are now recognized as serious security threats. Rising sea levels, water scarcity, extreme weather events, and resource conflicts can lead to displacement, instability, and interstate tensions.
Example: Climate-induced migration and water disputes in regions like South Asia and Africa have security implications. - Cooperative and Collective Security Approaches
Modern perspectives emphasize that security is often best achieved through cooperation rather than unilateral action. Collective security arrangements, regional organizations, and international regimes aim to manage shared threats.
Example: NATO, UN peacekeeping missions, and regional forums like ASEAN promote collective responses to security challenges. - Globalization and Transnational Threats
Globalization has interconnected states, making national security challenges increasingly transnational. Issues such as terrorism, pandemics, cybercrime, and organized crime cross borders and require coordinated international responses.
Example: International cooperation was essential to manage global health security during COVID-19. - Perception and Psychological Dimensions of Security
Modern security studies stress that security is not only about actual threats but also about perceptions and fears. Media narratives, misinformation, and political rhetoric can create insecurity even in the absence of real danger.
Example: Fear generated by misinformation campaigns can undermine trust in institutions and destabilize societies.
Conclusion: the modern perspective of national security in international relations presents a comprehensive and dynamic understanding of security. It recognizes that in an interconnected and rapidly changing world, national security depends not just on military power, but also on human well-being, economic resilience, environmental sustainability, technological preparedness, and international cooperation.